How are fashion and appearance central to the construction of social identities Essay Example for Free

How are fashion and appearance central to the construction of social identities Essay We live in a world were physical appearance is the measurement of our self-worth. Media advertisements more often than not show how people can improve their appearance and why it is important. From job interviews to social events, how people look and dress determine other people’s impression. In this age of increased self-consciousness, fashion and appearance play a crucial role in establishing the social identity of a person. Fashion, as defined by many books and other resources, can be defined as the prevalent style and custom at a certain point in time and the word may also mean the study of this certain fashion trends. Even though there are many things that can be considered prevalent at a certain time, fashion more often than not points more to clothing or clothing style. Different periods of time have different fashion. There is no other applied art which affects the everyday lives of the people other than fashion. Fashion design is responsible for the clothing that we wear since the ancient times. Clothing does not only help us keep warm but it also shapes us in the psychological and social aspect. Basically, clothing forms a basis of a person’s social identity. Fashion has become a part of the culture since the early times. Different ethnic groups have different clothes which reflect their culture. Fashion based on some researches done by cultural scientists played a role in social and cultural structure, social differentiation and social integration (Davis, 1994, p. 16). Social identity is the way people are categorized or label themselves. This can be in forms of their race or ethnicity. This can also be defined as how people associate or identify themselves into certain groups which serve to heighten their self esteem because they have the same social identities. Since people are social animals, sociologists deemed that social identity is an important aspect of a person. People want to be assured that they belong to one group or they positively compare with other group of people. When talking about social identity in terms of fashion, it is more than how majority of sociologist in the world restrict the concept as mere social class or status. Social identity includes how people communicate with others through symbolic means such as the way they dress or through clothing. It is also the configuration of attributes and attitudes which people seek to attain and discuss about themselves. Fashion contributes to the redefinition and reconstruction of a certain social identity by continually adding something new to cultural artifacts. Everything undergoes evolution and perhaps fashion is one thing that changes fast it is fashion. People change the way they dress when the weather changes. People change the way they carry their clothes when something in their environment shifts. Studies and researchers which were geared towards understanding the culture of a certain society more often than not focus on artifacts which are evidences of the past and present culture of a place. The woven pieces of clothing are often considered as indicators of social customs and social hierarchies. Anthropologists consider clothing as less prone to changes done by the capitalist market and are therefore richer or more stable indicators of sociological and cultural truths. Because of this, anthropologists invested far more energy and resources in investigating and examining the significance of the structure, form, and pattern of clothing than other cultural artifacts. For an instance, the way American Indians wear their clothes which were originally made from animal skin is still the same as before. Emergence of new ways of clothing did not change their original culture (Breward, 2003, p. 64). Fashion and its effect on nineteenth century Attempts to reform the way people dress first appeared during the nineteenth century. The people were starting to get tired of the constricting features of clothing and the too elaborate features of dresses. Women who were fighting for their rights such as Elizabeth Stanton, Elizabeth Miller and Amelia Bloomer were the women who designed the then very famous bloomer dress which was consisted of an uncorseted mid-calf dress which was set over pantaloons (Stearns, 1994, p. 12). Many improvements were made since then to people’s clothing. Different eras reflected different styles of clothing and are more often than not also reflective of the prevalent social identity. For example, during the Victorian era it can be said that the clothing of the people were like straitjackets which aimed to constrict the movements and manners of people. Women during the Victorian era were expected by the society to move and behave only when instructed by their male counterpart. Another example of how clothing or fashion plays a role in the construction of social identity is the wearing of uniforms of the military, police or religious personas. The wearing of uniforms based on social researches done impose an aura of confidence and authority so that they can make the people around them follow their orders either willingly or unwillingly (Crane, 2001, p. 3). Clothing also affected the way people measure their social status or whether they were rich or poor during the early nineteenth century. Clothes were generally considered as one of the most valuable possessions during this time. During the Industrial Revolution, clothes were started to be manufactured by machines or in factories and these clothes cost more than average. Newly made clothes were not available to the poor because of the cost and they were left to use hand-me-downs or used clothing. Clothes were very expensive that it was even considered a form of currency by the rich and often replaced gold as means of payment. Fashion and clothing are also means in which people differentiate themselves from others. Rare fashion finds such as antique clothes are used by people who want to express their uniqueness from others. They may wear it as everyday clothing or on special occasion. Regardless of when they will wear it, these kinds of clothing are worn by people to establish an identity which is different from others (Barnard, 2002, p. 61). Another example of how clothing constructs social identities was when large immigrants arrived in the United States during the second half of the nineteenth century. The immigrants who arrived immediately disposed their new clothing and used the new clothes available in the country. Through this method, anthropologists were able to deduce that the people wanted to start a new social identity so they immediately dropped their old ways of clothing. Hats were also famous article of clothing during the nineteenth century and it played the most important role in distinguishing the social status of a person. The bowler hat which was designed in England in 1850 was originally made as an occupational hat but was soon adopted by the people from the upper class for sports. It was not too long until people from all social strata adopted the bowler hat for everyday use. Another example, the cap with visor which was mainly used by military officers, was also adopted by the working class by the middle of the nineteenth century. The visor cap, then known as the peaked cap was considered to be the most common head covering for the working man. Fashion and its effect on the twenty-first century In the recent years, especially the twenty-first century, clothes were not deemed with the same economic importance unlike in the previous centuries. Because of the cheap ready-made clothes that were made available to all social classes, clothes were not used as replacement for gold unlike before. Even though the economic value of clothes was not as significant as before, their symbolic value remained as important as before. The availability of clothes to all social classes made it possible for those who are not so very affluent to still express their individualities and own cultures. Another example of how clothes changed the way people perceive their social identities is if before women were not allowed to wear tight clothes or those which confine their body. Today women can wear tight clothes such as leotards and spandex whenever they like because of their liberalization. Women of today are not expected to conform much to how the society expects them to behave or to act. They are also not forced to stay at home anymore but women are now doing what the men do. Indeed, the gender equality experienced in this century is reflected in the way women dress. Cross-dressing or the wearing of clothing that is associated with a different gender, is also another way of how fashion reconstructed the social identity of people (Bullough, 1993, p. ). Homosexuals before were forced to follow the prescribed way of dressing for their gender. Unlike today where in homosexuals are free to dress the way they want, without being afraid of other people and punishments. They can wear women’s clothing and express their identities freely unlike before. Teenagers or adolescents also use fashion to set their own social identity from their parents or those fro m an older generation. If we turn on the television or visit a high school, we can see teenagers strutting outrageous clothes such as those with bright colors or elaborate designs. If people from an older generation prefer simpler designs of clothes, teenagers prefer those with dramatic effects to highlight the generation difference (Sloan, 2009). Perhaps this is how the youth of today’s generation set their social identity. If ever we see an old person dressing up the way the teenagers do, these persons are often considered out of the ordinary. This social identity is somehow embedded in the minds of the people and teenagers are now remembered this way. People who prefer work than leisure or vice versa can also be determined by the way they dress. During they first years of the twentieth century, the three-piece business suit was considered by many to be the epitome of the high social class and are often worn during important events. Though some wear the business suit as everyday apparel, others still consider it as a social class distinction. There were also strict regulations as to how a business should be worn and made. There were exact measurements for the lapels, collars and sleeves. The strict regulations about business suits were deemed as a factor in how people will achieve success. The use of the popular T-Shirt was associated with leisure. Because of its availability and cheap cost, majority of the public during the early twentieth century prefer shirts over the business suits. As time passed, t-shirts were used by people to set off political agendas such as imprinting political statements on t-shirts or other humorous statements. No matter what social class people belong in, rich or poor, t-shirts are favored by these people. Fashion transmitted by popular culture or music come and go very rapidly. Clothes designed because of the effect of the popular culture and the entertainment media are often highly androgynous. There are people who call themselves gothic and they are identified socially by their gloomy appearance and wearing of black colored clothes. Established rock groups also affect the fashion scene by popularizing leather clothes. Rap musicians like rock groups popularized the baggy clothes worn by some teenagers today. Indeed fashion drew a line between different genres of music and avid fans of the different music genres also follow this fashion therefore setting a social identity for them. Fashion undoubtedly constructs and affects the social identity of a person in more ways than one. Fashion and all the attributes it entails are a vast reservoir of meanings and culture of a certain society. From fashion magazines to television advertisements, fashion is a way of introducing something new to the public. Because of what they see in these popular advertisements, the people’s way of thinking is affected. People also depend on clothes and trend of fashion to express themselves and their uniqueness. Without this part of our culture, people will have lesser chances of expressing themselves and their individuality.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Network (WAN) 1. Abstract WAN Wide Area Network is a communication network that make use of existing technology to connect local area network into a larger working network which may cover both national and international location. Wide Area Network allows a company to make use of common resources in order to operate, internal functions such as sales, production, development, marketing and accounting can be shared with authorized locations through this sort of network application. So thats why it is so important today. In this paper, I am going to demonstrates the techniques required for computer network from technology, architecture, media, protocol and routing algorithm based on the OSI seven layer model. 2. Introduction Bambi Co., Ltd. decided to implement a Wide Area Network between their two site in two different countries. As the network engineer of the company, is responsible to study, plan, design and implementation of a Wide Area Network for connecting two sites local area network. The requirement by the company that made the WAN a necessity are enumerated. The choice of WAN, hardware and the software is explained within the context of the needs of the company. Finally the benefits accruing to the company are identified and determined. 3. Company Background Bambi Co., Ltd. has two sites located in two different countries. Site A, the main office which located in Hong Kong and Site B, a factory which located in Shenzhen, the mainland China. In Site A, there are around 10 client workstations and Site B around 40 client workstations. There are three servers located in Site A, they are the domain server, email server and content management server. Another domain server also located in Site B, it mainly provide the services for Shenzhen users. 4. User requirement 4.1 Functionality On most of the users, their main concern is application available from the network. This including the following matters: 4.1.1 Fast response time Response time is the time between entering a command or keystroke and the execution of the command deliver a response. For users on Bambi Co., Ltd. environment, response time is the response running application or access from/to the servers, transmission of information as well as access to Internet. 4.1.2 High throughput The throughput environment on the company can be expected to be high. It can be expected that the throughput usage on the network will involve many users frequently access to the server and also to the Internet at same time. 4.2 Scalability The WAN implementation is expected to be function for a minimum of 5 years without the needs of upgrade the network equipments or rewiring the horizontal or vertical cable. 4.3 Adaptability The WAN implementation must be flexible enough to meet the demand of ever-growing needs of technologies when they become available. It might included with newer switching technology, more secure or faster router incorporating with new routing protocols and etc. Therefore, the WAN solution should be modular which allow added or swapped new network equipment with a minimum of network downtime. 4.4 Security The information transfer must be protected through the WAN environment. This is very important as to prevent the company data from stolen from their competitors. 4.5 Manageability The WAN implementation must be manageable and able to monitor by the network administrator. 4.6 Reliability Reliability of the WAN is important. The WAN must include fault-tolerance function and elements to give the stability of the network to reduce any unnecessary network downtime. 5. WAN solution 5.1 Regional Private Network Service Provider: Pacnet Type: MPLS VPN Bandwidth: 2Mbps Description: Connect between Bambi Co., Ltd. Site A and B 5.1.1 Introducing of MPLS and architecture MPLS stands for Multiprotocol Label Switching. It has been around for several years. It is standardized by IETF. (The Internet Engineering Task Force) Why multiprotocol? Since at the OSI 7 layer model, it operates between the layer 2 (Data Link Layer) and the layer 3 (Network Layer), so it often view as a 2.5 layer protocol. Conventional data packets are routed based on IP address and other information in the header. MPLS simplifies the forwarding function by taking a total different approach by introducing a connection oriented mechanism inside the connectionless IP network. Label switching indicates that the packets switched are no longer IPv4 or IPv6 packets and even Layer 2 frames when switched, but they are labeled. Below showing the MPLS header format. First 20-bits: Label value 20 22 bits: Three Experimental (EXP) bits, use for quality of service (QoS) 23 bit: Bottom of Stack (Bos) bit, 1 for bottom label, 0 otherwise 24 to 31 bits: Time To Live (TTL) 5.1.2 MPLS components and operation MPLS network comprise the following elements: Label Edge Router (LER): Router placed at the edge of the MPLS network Label Switching Router (LSR): MPLS capable router Label Switch Path (LSP): An ordered sequence of LSRs Label Distribution Protocol (LDP): Set of procedures by which LSRs establish LSPs In MPLS network, an optimal path is firstly determine and tag. When packets enter the MPLS network, the input router and switch uses the layer 3 header to assign the packets to one of this predetermine path. MPLS using a label stacking process to better handle the traffic. A label is attached to the end to end path information in the packet. The label together with the data packet as it cross the network. All other routers along the path use the label to determine the next hop address instead of the IP address. Since this device only operates on the information in the label, processor-intensive analysis and classification of the layer 3 header occur only at the entrance to the network. This remove much of the overhead used in the network and therefore, speed up the overall processing of data. 5.1.3 MPLS Protocols MPLS use 2 protocols to establish the LSP, they are: MPLS Routing protocol Distribute topology information only. Interior gateway protocol such as OSPF, IS-, BGP-4 is normally use. MPLS Signaling protocol Information for program the switching fabric. RSVP-TE and LDP is used. 5.1.4 MPLS VPN MPLS Virtual Private Networks (VPN) is the most popular and widespread implementation of MPLS technology. A VPN provide communication at OSI layer 2 or 3. VPN is protected by strong encryption. In general, the data travel across the VPN is not visible and encapsulated. MPLS is well suited for VPN because of its characteristics. 5.2 Internet Connection Service Provider: Pacnet Type: SHDSL Bandwidth: 4Mbps downstream/4Mbps upstream Description: Applied at Site A. By the way, the WAN connection will be allowed the Internet share with Site B office. In order to fulfill both sites demand, Single High Speed Digital Subscriber Line (SHDSL) has chosen. SHDSL is one of the DSL family technology. Similar with other SDSL service, the upstream and downstream data rates are equal. One of its advantage of SHDSL is its high symmetric data rates with guaranteed bandwidth and low interference. In Bambi Co., Ltd. a 4M/4M speed line is using for their Internet connection. 6. Ethernet Standard CAT 6 (Category 6) twisted-pair UTP is using under Bambi Co., Ltd. LAN environment. Its Gigabit Ethernet cable standard which bandwidth up to 400MHz and over a range of 100 m. It meet up the ANSI/TIA-568-B.2-1 performance specification. 7. Network Environment Overview 7.1 Entire Network Diagram 7.2 Hardware/Software description 7.3 Network configuration 7.3.1 Protocol and LAN segments With the popularity of the Internet, TCP/IP become the most popular protocol. In Bambi Co., Ltd. only TCP/IP protocol allowed to be implement on the network environment. All servers and desktop PCs located on Site A and B will have static addresses, while notebook PCs will obtain addresses by utilizing Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). IPv4 will be chosen as the type. Compare with IPv6, IPv4 had been around for many years, there are much more hardware and software supports. 8. Security The following is the security arrangement for protect companys data: 8.1 Authentication Each staff sign an individual login id for access their workstation and server resource like the email. The password establishes complexity level with minimum length of 5 characters. The password will enforce change every 3 months. 8.2 Authorization Only some authorize staffs with Internet connection. This prevent the data disclose by FTP, web mail or any online storage. 8.3 Audit The email server is able to keep logging which allow the administrative staff trace whether any company important data disclose by email. 8.4 Monitor The firewall and switch are able to monitor the network for suspicious activity. For example, if the firewall detect heavy traffic or overload session, it will send email alert to the network administrator. 8.5 Virus Protection Some kind of computer virus will steal infected computers data. So every servers and client workstations has install a memory resident antivirus software for protection. The UMT firewall also provide gateway antivirus function which prevent virus from the layer 2 level. 8.6 Encryption The MPLS VPN deployed to be high security network tunnel. The data transmit between site A and B office with strong encryption. 9. Conclusion In the user requirement chapter, 6 requirements were outlined. We summarize the benefits from applying the MPLS as below: 9.1 Functionality No performance bottleneck of CPE VPN devices Reduced network latency Guaranteed SLA (Service level agreement) for time critical applications Supports the delivery of services with QoS (Quality of service) guarantees 9.2 Scalability Highly scalable since no site to site peering is required and reconfiguration of VPN devices. 9.3 Adaptability Multiple connection type and bandwidth selection (e.g. ATM, Metro Ethernet, Broadband, etc.) 9.4 Security Private network completely isolated from Internet. 9.5 Manageability Customer is able to complete control their own routing. 9.6 Reliability Enable fast restoration from failures The network design presented here meets all those objectives. Both for today and in the future. 10. Reference Rosen, E., Viswanathan, A. and Callon, R. (2001) Multiprotocol Label Switching Architecture, IETF Documents, [Online] Available from: http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3031, [accessed on 07/03/10] PACNET 2010: Pacnet Domestic IP VPN Available on: http://hk.pacnet.com/network/domestic-ip-vpn/, [accessed on 13/03/10] Bates, R. (2002) Broadband Telecommunications Handbook. 2nd edition. McGraw-Hill Professional, Columbus. Guichard, B. PepeInjak, I. and Apcar, J. (2003) MPLS and VPN Architectures, Volume II. Cisco Press, Indiana. Ghein, L. (2007) MPLS Fundamentals. Cisco Press, Indiana. Jamison, S. Cardarelli, M. and Hanley, S. (2007) Essential SharePoint 2007. Pearson Education, Inc., Boston.

Human Adaptations to Extreme Cold

Human Adaptations to Extreme Cold   Abstract Humans have successfully adapted to environmental stresses, including extreme cold. A review of existing literature examining archaeological data, historical data, and current populations regarding human adaptation to cold stress (average annual temperature of ~ -14 °C / 7 °F) yields evidence supporting distinctive morphological, physiological and behavioral traits that compensate for the stress. Morphological adaptations can be seen in elongated and narrowed nasal passages (long narrow noses), which help warm and hydrate the air before it passes into the lungs; and a decreased surface area to volume ratio and allowing the individuals to more easily maintain a normal core body temperature. Physiological adaptations include: increased basal metabolic rate, which increases the amount of body heat produced; and a higher prevalence of type 1 diabetes, which may be a genetic adaptation that protects cells from freezing. Additionally behavioral adaptations can be observed in agricultur e, awareness of fickle environmental factors, and clothing. Traditional populations in sub-polar regions tend to be hunter foragers; agriculture is limited to what can be cultivated in the short growing season. Some populations demonstrate acute awareness of weather patterns, modifying their behaviors to minimize exposure to dangerous conditions while taking full advantage of more temperate periods. The author finds ample evidence of widely varied human adaptations to extremely cold environments which allow sub-arctic populations to survive more easily in their specific environments. Human Adaptations to Extreme Cold Humans have successfully adapted morphologically, physiologically, and behaviorally to environmental stress, including extreme cold. As a species, humans have survived Ice Ages which brought the intensely cold environment, normal for our polar and sub-polar regions, across much of the planet. To understand the wide variety of adaptations which have proven successful, the author explored existing literature analyzing data from archaeological, historical, and anecdotal sources, as well as from current populations. Because more information involving human populations exists for inhabitants of sub-polar regions than for any other extremely cold environments (except high-altitude locales where oxygen level is a significant contributing factor for adaptation and would complicate conclusions which might be drawn about adaptations to cold stress) the author focused there. Extreme cold is defined, in terms of environment, by examining monthly mean temperature charts provided online by the U.S . Navy (Guest, 2000). These data show that monthly mean temperatures at sub-polar locations, both north and south, range from -30 °C (-22 °F) in January to +5 ° C (+41 °F) in July, with daily variations from -40 °C (-40 °F) to +30 °C (+86 °F) yielding average annual temperatures ~ -14 °C (7 °F). Ample evidence exists to support conclusions that morphological, physiological, and behavioral adaptations have occurred in response to the stress of existence in extremely cold environments. Morphological adaptations can be seen in elongated and narrowed nasal passages, broad pelves, and relatively short, stocky bodies. (Kennedy 2007; Hernandez, Fox, Garcia-Moro 1997). Fueguians and the Eskimos are the human groups with the narrowest and highest nasal apertures, displaying a combination of large nasal height and low nasal breadth values, while groups from equatorial areas have low, wide nasal passages (Hernà ¡, et al. 1997). Both groups lived and/or live in the sub-polar regions (one nearer the southern pole, one nearer the northern). Fueguians inhabited Tierra del Fuego, the southernmost tip of South American after the ice sheets receded, ~ 10,000 to 12,000 BP (before present). Unlike the sub-Arctic environment, which is cold and dry, the climate of Tierra del Fuego is extremely cold, rainy, foggy, and windy. Average temperatures are in line with our definition of extreme cold, but in addition the area receives ~3000 mm (118 in) of rain each year and strong, persistent winds that blow off the glaciers, inducing a significant windchill affect. (Hernà ¡, et al. 1997, and references therein) took craniometric (measurments of the skull) measurements of 180 skulls from three distinct tribal groups of the area and analyzed them in relation to Howells 28 craniometric series in order to increase the statistical significance of the sample. When all the measurements were plotted on a climate map, a strong correlation between increased nasal height combined with narrow breadth and extremely low temperatures is apparent. Researchers postulate that high, narrow nasal openings allow frigid air to be warmed by the mucous membranes lining the nasal cavity to prevent damage to delicate lung tissue, and enhance the recovery of heat and moisture from expired air. (Hernà ¡, et al. 1997) Another morphological adaptation supported by existing studies is a short, stocky body structure. Body proportions of humans [and other endothermic (i.e., warm-blooded) species] have long been known to show significant correlations with climatic variables and their proxies. Specifically, two empirically derived ecogeographical rules, those of Bergmann (1847) and Allen (1877), state that within a widespread endothermic species, those in colder regions will tend to weigh more (Bergmanns rule) and be characterized by shorter appendages (Allens rule) than their conspecifics [members of the same species] in warmer climes. (Holliday and Hilton, 2010 and references therein). They also put forward colder-climate groups being characterized by broader pelves, and reference C.B Ruffs work from the early 1990s. Holliday and Hilton (2010) examine skeletal data from the Point Hope Inuit (another name for Eskimo) of North America. A total of 173 individuals, 127 from the Tigara period (13th to 17th century AD) and 46 from the Ipiutak period (~100 BC to 500 AD) were measured and analyzed relative to other Native North Americans, and samples from Europe, North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa (from similar periods). Based on results from previous studies referenced, Holliday and Hilton concentrated their effort on measurements which have already been determined to vary with climate, specifically limb bones from the four major limb segments, femoral head diameter, skeletal trunk height (the summed dorsal body heights of T1-L5 plus sacral ventral length), and bi-iliac breadth [pelvic width]. (Holliday and Hilton, 2010). From the basic measurements, the authors computed seven ratios which are identified as indices for comparison. Results show that African samples provide the lowest indices while circumpolar populations show the highest, with European numbers in the middle. Neither of the groups measured specifically for this study (nor the third Native North American sample) is signific antly different from the other, but marked variations exist between these groups and both of the African groups. Interestingly, results do not support the authors expectation that the Inuit and Europeans would show a discernible variation using the specific indices studied. However, the bi-iliac relative breadth index (pelvic breadth compared to assumed trunk height) did separate these two groups distinctly. As a counter-point, it is noted that there are other factors which can affect overall stature, such as under-nutrition. In a harsh environment, maintaining sufficient nutritional intake is likely compromised, and so the shorter body may not be simply an adaptation to the extremely cold environment. Popular rhetoric holds that a layer of body fat helps keep humans, and other mammals, warm. In his 2007 American Journal of Human Biology article, Human cold adaptation: An unfinished agenda Steegmann does not disagree; he says, Fat insulates better than muscle per unit of thickness. However, in a fit person, muscle layers are usually much thicker than subcutaneous fat and consequently have higher absolute insulative value. Studies in the 1950s and 1960s (referenced in Elsner (1963): LeBlanc, 1954; Baker and Daniels, 1956; Daniels, et al, 1961) demonstrated that Caucasians with a thicker layer of body fat, as measured by skinfold, maintained core temperature, skin temperature, and metabolic rate more reliably when exposed to 15 ° C (59 °F) for two hours. However, in a similar study (Elsner, 1963) compared the skinfold thickness of eight hunter-gatherer groups (aborigines of central and northern Australia, Inuit of Canada, Eskimos, Alacaluf Indians of southern Chile, Lapps, Peruvi an Indians, and Kalahari bushmen), and cold-acclimatized Norwegian students, with urban Caucasians as a control. Skinfold thickness was measured at ten locations: abdomen, back (subscapular), calf, cheek, chin, iliac crest, knee, pectoral, upper arm,and side. The urban Caucasian control group had higher values across the board, except for the cheek measurement. Of particular interest, Canadian Inuit, and Eskimos had amongst the lowest values; not what was expected from populations that acquire 70-75% of their caloric intake (see above) from animal fat. Additionally he measured the rectal temperature, metabolic rate, and skin temperature of his subjects during an eight-hour sleep period with ambient room temperature of 0 ° 5 °C (32 ° 41 °F) during which time they had only one thin blanket to wrap up in. Elsner reports that there was poor correlation between skinfold thickness and the measurements of interest during the overnight study. In support of these findings, from ano ther study, Steegman (2007) reports results which demonstrate that Inuit traditionally had high muscle mass and high work capacity, but low body fat. Aside from the subjective observation that the primitive groups had better sleep than the control group, three sets of reactions emerged from Elsners study: 1) Canadian Inuit, Eskimos, and Alacaluf Indians, and cold-acclimatized Norwegian students demonstrated high metabolic rates (measurement technique not defined) and warm extremities; 2) Kalahari bushmen and aborigines from central Australia had stable or falling metabolic rate and cooler skin; and 3) Peruvian Indians and Lapps had low rectal temperatures and higher extremity temperatures. So, while a thicker layer of body fat does not seem to be a human adaptation for survival in extremely cold environments, increased metabolic rate and some protective mechanism to keep extremities warm both appear likely. (Makinen, 2007) Physiological adaptations include: increased basal metabolic rate, high protein/high fat/low carbohydrate nutritional requirements, and some evidence of variations in blood chemistry. (Westerterp-Plantenga 1999; Srivastava, Kumar 1991; Moalem, Storey, Percy, Peros, Perl 2004) An inverse relationship between BMR and mean annual temperature has been documented, which holds true even when controlled for differences in body size. (Snodgrass, et all 2005) In fact, Snodgrass, et al (2005) conducted extensive research among the Yakut population in Siberia (sub-polar Asia) which supports the claim that increased basal metabolic rate is an important human adapation to the stress of an extremely cold environment. With a thorough and well-documented scientific process, participants in the Snodgrass study underwent measurements of core temperature, oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production, and heart rate in a thermoneutral (23 ° 27 °C) environment after a 12-hour fast. Results for basal metabolic rate (BMR) were predicted based on three standards drawn from a European population: fat-free mass (FFM), surface area (SA), and body mass. In all three cases, for males and females, the Yakut BMR measured significantly higher than predicted values. The BMR of Yaku t men and women were demonstrably elevated over their more southern-dwelling, European counterparts. Another metabolic adaptation might be seen in the increased incidence of Type 1 diabetes mellitus among northern Europeans. Moalem, et al (2004) Recent animal research has uncovered the importance of the generation of elevated levels of glucose, glycerol and other sugar derivatives as a physiological means for cold adaptation. High concentrations of these substances depress the freezing point of body fluids and prevent the formation of ice crystals in cells through supercooling, thus acting as a cryoprotectant or antifreeze for vital organs as well as in their muscle tissue. Citing the example of cystic fibrosis conferring immunity to typhoid (salmonella typhi), the authors suggest that elevated blood glucose levels, such as are seen when the body does not produce insulin, may be the result of genetic mutation which gave an evolutionary advantage to inhabitants of cold climates about 14,000 years ago when world-wide temperatures dropped dramatically. Life expectancies then were short, so genetic adaptations that enhanced survival would have favored changes in the short term. Now that our life expectancies have increased to 70+ years, we can observe that such changes might have been beneficial then, but currently are causing dangerous health issues within the aging population. Traditional dietary intake of these populations of cold-dwellers depends completely on what is available at any given time. In 2004 Patricia Cochran, a native Inuit Alaskan, wrote on the traditional diet for Discovermagizine.com. Our meat was seal and walrus, marine mammals that live in cold water and have lots of fat. We used seal oil for our cooking and as a dipping sauce for food. We had moose, caribou, and reindeer. We hunted ducks, geese, and little land birds like quail, called ptarmigan. We caught crab and lots of fish-salmon, whitefish, tomcod, pike, and char. Our fish were cooked, dried, smoked, or frozen. We ate frozen raw whitefish, sliced thin. The elders liked stinkfish, fish buried in seal bags or cans in the tundra and left to ferment. And fermented seal flipper, they liked that too. She reports that in the short summers the villagers would forage for roots, greens, and berries.. What the diet of the Far North illustrates, says Harold Draper, a biochemist and expert in Eskimo nutrition, is that there are no essential foods-only essential nutrients. And humans can get those nutrients from diverse and eye-opening sources. Inhabitants of extremely cold climates do not live to eat, they eat to live. The traditional Inuit diet, which seems to a Westerner to be sorely lacking in fruits and vegetables, which the U.S. government insists are necessary for wellness, supplies all they need to maintain health in their sub-polar climate. Vitamin C, which is a vital component for healthy connective tissue, is found in raw animal organs, raw kelp, and even muktuk, which is as rich in Vitamin C as orange juice, gram for gram.Fat-soluble vitamins A and D are metabolically mined from cold-water fish and mammal fats and livers. Not surprising, then, that the traditional Inuit diet comprised 90% of its caloric intake from meat and fish, 50-70% of its calories specifically from wild animal fat fat is the source of not only calories but also necessary nutrients. This traditional Inuit diet based wholly on what food is available from hunting, fishing and forage-harvesting might be a behavioral/cultural adaptation to the climate, while also encompassing metabolic/digestive adaptations. While morphological and physiological adaptations to environment take eons to manifest, some cultural and social adaptations may be apparent on a far shorter time scale. Steegmann (2007, and references therein) speaks about Richard K. Nelsons comparison of Kutchin natives of east-central Alaska to Eskimos, explaining Nelsons observation that Kutchin hunters keep moving if they lose their way, afraid if they stop they will sleep and freeze. Eskimo rest as needed and only move to stay warm. He also noted that Eskimo had a complex understanding of weather prediction and were better equipped to plan accordingly and keep themselves safe. In both cases, Eskimos seem to practice higher survival skills and both behaviors are strongly directed by cultural traditions. Two very different responses to the same stimuli in similar environments, with potentially diametrically opposed results: survival and death. Another surprising and non-intuitive variation in responses to the extreme cold of sub-polar life can be found in the clothing styles of arctic and some sub-arctic populations. According to Hernà ¡, et al. (1997) arctic inhabitants, such as the Inuit, wear clothing designed to protect them from the harsh cold, whereas the three Fuegian tribes they study, who lived at the southern tip of South America, are anecdotally described as almost naked throughout their lives. The Fuegian tribes are extinct, so no opportunities to explore their cultural adaptations to their extreme environment. Human adapation to the stress of an extremely cold environment, such as those of sub-polar regions, can be seen in morphological changes, physiological changes, and behavioral/cultural developments. Morphological changes include long, narrow nasal passages, to pre-warm icy air and protect fragile lung tissues and short, stocky body structure, which increases the body mass to surface area ratio, conserving body heat. Physiologically, increased basal metabolic rate is strongly supported as an adaptation, in a contemporary population, to the extremely cold climate of Siberia. An increased incidence of Type 1 diabetes in cold climates is suggested as a favorable mutation during the rapid onset of a mini Ice Age, but more studies would be needed to prove this as a lasting adaptation. Changes in metabolism and digestion in order to extract necessary nutrients from the limited food sources available in a sub-polar climate may be a physiological adaptation, but without studies to demonstrate a change in how the Inuit (or other sub-polar inhabitant) body processes food in order to extract necessary nutrients, it should be categorized as a behavioral/cultural adaptations. They eat to live, utilizing all food sources available. Other behavioral adaptations can be observed in a more precise weather awareness, perhaps, and clothing styles.

The Korean War Essay -- History War

On 25 June 1950, the Republic of South Korea was invaded by the North Korean Democratic people. Then, many things started to happen and these showed that they became the main significance of the Cold War that had been going on between the Allies power and the communists, since World War II was over. The invasion by the North Korean communists made President Harry Truman got furious. He looked at the attack as a direct dispute to America's decision to fight against international communism and to his 1947 Truman Doctrine. As a result, the Korean War broke out, which lasted for about three years. Just like in the Battle of Stalingrad, the Korean War left behind huge impacts and consequences. The Korean War and the Battle of Stalingrad each placed huge strain upon civilian populations, including mass executions, destruction of property and tolls of prisoners or wars. The impacts of Korean War on the civilian population were dramatic, even until now the people can still feel them. It was estimated in the Korean War that the civilian casualties were about three to four million. â€Å"Many of those people assumed their flight to be a temporary measure; they fully expected to return to their lands after the fighting ended. So many left not just property and heirlooms, but also close relatives.† â€Å"Even after the signing of armistice at Panmunjom, psychological peace is not yet part of the Korean existence. For the Korean War split a land and separated a people. And no armistice can remedy that ill.† (calvin.edu). According to Charles J. Hanley, Seoul Government managed to investigate the dark history of mass political executions that were conducted in South Korea and they found evidence that proved that Seoul government killed thousands of peo... ...e Community. Defense Technological Information Center, 17 Mar. 2004. Web. 02 Nov. 2010. "50 Years and Counting: The Impact of the Korean War on the People of the Peninsula." Calvin College - Distinctively Christian, Academically Excellent, Always Reforming. Web. 02 Nov. 2010. July, By Early. "Korean War--The North Korean Offensive, 1950." Naval History and Heritage Command. Web. 02 Nov. 2010. "South Korea - The Syngman Rhee Era, 1946-60." Country Studies. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. "Chapter 7: Prisoners of War." U.S. Army Center Of Military History. Apr. 2001. Web. 14 Nov. 2010. United States. Cong. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. Communist Treatment of Prisoners of War: a Historical Survey, 92nd Congress, 2nd Session, 1972. Ed. James O. Eastland. S. Rept. 1972. Print. Hanley, Charles J., and Jae-Soon Chang. "JapanFocus." JapanFocus. Dec. 2008. Web. 13 Nov. 2010.

Racism In The Movies Essay -- essays research papers

Spike Lee’s, Do The Right Thing is a comtemporary look at racism in a ordinary city urban neighborhood. The movie is seen through the eyes of the main character, Mookey, we are shown the multiple relationships and often typical stereotypes of racial groups. This movies is filled with symbolism and imagery that feeds to the story’s plot. Throughout the movie, the scorching heat is always being refereed to. As the movie goes on , the heat rises. I think this is done to represent the increasing racial tension within the neighborhood. The movie uses many situations to paint a picture of the racial tension and inequality.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main plot of the movie involves the relationship that a black neighborhood has with an Italian owned pizzeria and a Korean owned convenience store. There is a conflict that occurs when one of young men from the neighborhood enters the pizzeria and demands that the owner, Sal, include on his wall of famous Italians, famous Blacks as well. Sal refuses, telling the man that it is his pizzeria and he can have whomever he wants on the wall. The man leaves feeling even more frustrated than before and decides to organize a boycott. To his dismay, he is only able to recruit a single person.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another conflict occurs between Mookey and one of of Sal’s sons. Sal’s son is an outspoken racist, or so it seems. He is always urging Sal to try to sell the business and leave the neighborhood to get away from â€Å"these† ...

Developmentally Appropriate Practice Buzzwords or best practice?

Developmentally Appropriate Practice Buzzwords or best practice? By Jocelyn Smrekar and Andrea Hansen Teachers and parents are sometimes fooled into thinking that children must learn to read by age 5, usually in kindergarten. Consider this example: Jamie has trouble reading in kindergarten. Her teacher says it’s because she only played in preschool. In first grade, Jamie is called learning disabled because she still doesn’t read. By third grade though, Jamie is reading fluidly with her peers. Have teachers cured Jamie of a disability? No!Jamie’s reading development followed its own course and leveled into a lifelong skill and what teachers call â€Å"working at grade level. † Children develop at different rates in separate areas: physical, emotional, cognitive or intellectual, language, and social. Differences, including abilities and disabilities, affect the way and speed with which children develop skills. Genetic traits, temperaments, learning style, en vironment, cultural and racial expectations, and experiences influence learning. Some children learn to say words at 8 months, others not until they’re almost 2 or older.Many children learn to walk at 9 months, while others wait until they are 15 to 18 months. Charts of developmental milestones—walking, talking, running, or stacking three blocks, for example—are based on averages. Parents and teachers frequently worry when a child doesn’t have a skill at the targeted time. Most often, skills develop according to children’s interests and temperaments—that is, a child’s basic approach to people and events. Foundation for Further Learning Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) is a term coined by the National Association for the Education of Young Children.It describes teaching techniques that identify and foster the developmental needs of children, both individually and in groups (Bredekamp, 1987). DAP is a set of guidelines suggest ing curriculum content and practice serving children birth through age 8. Simply stated, these guidelines encourage early childhood programs to provide an educational environment that responds to the needs and interests of children. In that environment, trained teachers use observation to plan for the class and the individuals in it. In DAP classrooms, children’s play is the primary vehicle for learning.This article will focus on DAP in school settings, prekindergarten through third grade. DAP deals with all the levels and stages children grow through, building a strong foundation for future learning. Children remember, classify, repeat, and modify their experiences as they learn about the world and the people in it. For example, Zach, age 6, is eager to put together a puzzle with 100 pieces. He has experience with puzzles—first with five-piece wooden puzzles in a frame, then with cardboard floor puzzles, and finally with boxed 60-piece puzzles.He knows that the pictur e on the outside of the box will be a guide as he separates the straight-edged pieces from the curved ones. He locates the four corners, looks for matching colors, and after 45 minutes of concentrated effort, completes the puzzle. He has used his past experiences to build new ones that include abstract tasks like classifying, matching, counting, sorting, identifying, and experimenting. He has improved his small motor skills, increased his ability to concentrate on a complex task, and learned the virtue of tenacity, sticking to the task until completion.Zack’s alert teacher notes his success and plans new ways to challenge his skills and foster new interests. A teacher’s understanding and use of DAP are keys to educational success. Learning experiences in a DAP classroom Children are active learners—they need opportunities to investigate and explore with objects, materials, and equipment in order to construct a base of information about their world. Through first hand experiences, children are able to connect what they already know with new, more complex information.Teachers who use DAP in their classrooms provide opportunities for children to interact with a variety of materials. They offer uninterrupted time to actively explore not only intellectual skills, but also social, emotional, physical, and language skills. Specific teaching techniques include asking open-ended questions, modeling, demonstrating, exploring, coaching, and direct instruction. These techniques extend learning and guide children to skill mastery (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997). Young children learn best and most when they actively and playfully explore materials and activities, using all their senses.Developmentally appropriate classrooms are set up so individuals or groups of children can become directly involved with materials. Children move between free or spontaneous play and organized play. In free play, for example, a puppet show evolves into a performance by childr en in dress-up clothes. In organized play, children might chart the favorite fruits of class members. Role of Play A central issue in DAP is the role of play in the curriculum. Because adults don’t depend on play to learn, they tend to dismiss it as a pleasant time spent without profit. In children, however, play is an essential part of a child’s education.Sometimes called children’s work, play supports a child’s development by providing the tools, equipment, and interpersonal experiences that help children grow. Through play, children acquire information, master activities, use concrete materials as symbols, organize previous learning, learn perseverance and focus, solve problems, and develop creativity. Are Children Really Learning? While many teachers agree that DAP helps children develop cognitive, social, emotional, language, and physical skills, parents often ask, â€Å"Is my child really learning? All I see is play. â€Å"Standardized tests given after second grade to children in both DAP and traditional classrooms have revealed little difference in general reading skills (Kostelnik, Soderman, and Whiren, 1993). Children in DAP classrooms scored significantly higher in tests of vocabulary, reading comprehension, expressive language, and reading and writing mechanics in context. In standardized tests of math, the two groups showed similar scores in overall math skills, but the DAP children scored significantly higher in conceptual understanding and problem-solving skills than children in traditional classrooms.Children who had been in DAP classrooms for five years scored significantly higher in reasoning and problem-solving skills. Most importantly, children in DAP classrooms reported great enthusiasm for school and high involvement in the learning process. What Does a DAP Classroom Look Like? The physical setup of a DAP classroom indicates how learning takes place. The teacher’s desk is usually in an inconspicuous pl ace, not in the front of the room. Student desks, if provided at all, are clustered into learning centers. Most often, long tables replace individual desks, encouraging cooperative group work.Room arrangements and traffic patterns may change throughout the year as children grow and change intellectually, and they meet specific educational goals. Another difference in DAP classrooms is the way textbooks and worksheets are used. Often in traditional classrooms, printed materials are the primary source of instruction; teachers dictate the use of textbooks, worksheets, and other teaching materials. In a developmentally appropriate classroom, children learn through materials that are concrete, real, and relevant to their lives.In a kindergarten class that is studying insects, for example, the classroom is rich with pictures, colorful field guides, and posters. It may also have an ant farm with magnifying glasses, a box of silk worms spinning cocoons, a tomato plant with resident praying mantis, and a butterfly house. Children are encouraged to collect insects and sort them by size, color, function, or benefits to humanity. They use math skills like counting, estimating, and graphing in the daily routine. They have opportunities to draw and paint their impressions of insects as well as to sing and act out the metamorphosis of caterpillar to butterfly.In a DAP classroom textbooks are resources, not the primary source of information. All equipment and supplies—including manipulatives, construction materials, art music, and role-playing props—are accessible to the children as they explore and discover answers and new questions. Teachers support learning by setting up centers and providing the materials and guidance necessary for the children to learn. DAP as Best Practice Teachers who have adopted developmentally appropriate practices consider each child’s uniqueness and skill level when planning activities.Allowing children to progress through the stages of development at their own rates is the best way to build the foundation for future learning. This philosophy is reflected in the classroom environment and activities planned. Learning takes place naturally, because it is child-centered and relevant. Children are constantly learning, building on what they know to create new ways of thinking and seeing their world. Isenberg, J. and N. Quisenberry. â€Å"Play: A necessity for all children,† Childhood Education, 64 (3), 138-145, 1988. Statements of Developmentally Appropriate Practice Space and Furnishings 1. Indoor spaceChildren need sufficient space that is well lit and has a comfortable temperature for learning and playing. Indoor space that is well maintained and in good repair sends a message to the young child that is welcoming and inviting. 2. Furniture for routine care, play and learning Children need appropriate furnishings to meet the demands of their daily schedules. Basic furniture such as cots, tables and c hairs should be sturdy and appropriate to the size of the children in the group in order for children to be comfortable, have proper body support, and focus on learning, playing, and routine activities rather than their own discomfort.Caregivers need easy access to routine care furnishings, such as cots, in order to maintain proper supervision and provide smooth transitions between activities. 3. Furnishings for relaxation and comfort Children need space and opportunity to relax and rest. Soft furnishings and toys allow children opportunities for relaxation and comfort. Cozy areas provide a space for quiet activities to occur and should be protected from active play so children can snuggle, daydream and lounge. 4. Room arrangement Creative room arrangement promotes a child's positive self-image and encourages a wide variety of age appropriate activities.Well-defined interest centers where materials are accessible help children to understand about organization and returning materials to their proper place. 5. Space for privacy Some children experience unacceptably high levels of stress when exposed to constant activity and interaction. Places where children can escape from the pressures of group care promote positive self-esteem. Providing a child with opportunities, space, and time to be alone can contribute to positive classroom behavior. 6. Child related display Every child needs to know that others value his/her play or work.Artwork or other individual work that is created by the children should be displayed in the classroom at the child's eye-level. This promotes feelings of positive self-esteem and sends the message to the child that his/her work is valued and appreciated. 7. Gross motor play Children need daily opportunities to exercise large muscles, run in open spaces, and practice gross motor skills. (Safety is always a number one priority. ) Space to develop children's large muscles through a variety of play experiences should be made safe by providi ng adequate cushioning for fall zones.All play equipment should be safe and effective monitoring should be implemented to teach children safe play behavior and to safeguard against accidents. 8. Gross motor equipment Children need age appropriate stationary and portable equipment to promote a wide variety of skills that exercise large muscles while developing confidence and abilities. Equipment should be sound, sturdy, safe and accessible to children daily. Personal Care Routines 9. Greeting/Departing Parents and children need a warm, welcoming, and pleasant atmosphere to make the daily greeting and departing routine a happy one.Positive greetings help to promote the children's self-esteem and create a welcoming environment for parents. 10. Meals/Snacks Meals and snacks that follow USDA guidelines contribute to the health of children and provide a model for good nutritional habits for life-long practice. Proper hand washing along with careful food preparation teach children proper h ygiene and promotes sanitary conditions. 11. Nap/Rest Nap and/or rest time should be appropriately scheduled and supervised for the children in the group. Adequate separation of cots helps to prevent the spread of germs.Soft music or a soothing story helps to facilitate a peaceful rest time that is important in helping children to balance the day and renew their energy. 12. Toileting/Diapering Young children need appropriate supervision of the toileting process in order to care for basic needs and to teach the importance of good health habits. The schedule should be individualized. Provisions, such as soap and steps near the sink, should be convenient and accessible so that children can wash hands after toileting; this promotes self-help skills and good personal hygiene.Diapering should always be managed in a manner that promotes safety and good health practices. 13. Health practices Practicing preventive measures, such as washing hands after handling pets or wiping noses, help to e ducate children to achieve life-long health practices. Taking appropriate action when children are sick will minimize the spread of germs. 14. Safety practices Protecting children is critical in providing quality care, whether through adequate supervision or minimizing hazards both inside and outside. Caregivers should anticipate potential safety problems and demonstrate, model, and teach children safe practices.Language-Reasoning 15. Books and pictures The use of books and pictures is an important means of learning for children as they make sense of the world around them. Books, pictures, and language materials should be available in sufficient number both for independent use in a reading center and for use by a teacher with children in formal and informal settings. 16. Encouraging children to communicate Activities and materials that promote language development should be available for use throughout the classroom and the daily schedule. Teachers should establish an environment wh ere language exploration and usage is encouraged.17. Using language to develop reasoning skills Logical relationships and concepts should be presented in appropriate ways. Children learn through interaction with materials and people, both peers and adults, in the context of play and daily routines. Language provides the key tool for success and problem solving, as children are encouraged to talk through their thought processes. 18. Informal use of language Language is a way for children to expand understanding. Caregivers should engage children in give and take conversations for enjoyment and learning.They should support child-to-child conversations as well. Activities 19. Fine motor Children need a variety of age-appropriate and developmentally-appropriate toys and materials that they can manipulate with their hands and play with at will. These activities strengthen fine motor control while encouraging skill development that contributes to academic readiness. 20. Art Children benef it from exposure to child-initiated art activities that are open-ended and process oriented. Children's art should be respected and appreciated as individual, creative expression.Materials and opportunities to create art projects at a beginning and more advanced level should be available as children are developmentally ready for them. 21. Music/movement Music and movement are valuable means of learning. Children need a supportive environment that includes a teacher and a variety of tools to encourage their self-expression through music and related activities. 22. Blocks Block play, with a variety of blocks and accessories, allows children the opportunity to explore spatial, mathematical, and role-play possibilities.Powerful block play requires sufficient space in a protected area and time to expand on concepts and ideas. 23. Sand/water Sand and water play gives children the opportunity to learn concepts through active exploration with their senses. The addition of interesting props extends the learning potential offered through sensory play. 24. Dramatic play Dramatic play gives children the opportunity to discover an array of roles and responsibilities. It provides a vehicle through which they make sense of their world. Dramatic play is enhanced by space, time, props, materials, and supportive teachers.25. Nature/science Science and nature activities and materials foster curiosity and experimentation benefiting the young learner through direct experience and application to other areas of learning. Concept and observation skills are strengthened through science procedures. 26. Math/number Math skills, when introduced through appropriate hands-on methods, form a foundation for school readiness and later academic success. Math skills can be taught effectively through routines, schedule, and play activities. 27. Use of TV, video, and/or computerTV/video viewing and computer use tend to be passive in comparison to active involvement with materials and people. The use of each should be confined to subject material that is age-appropriate and mentally stimulating. Time limits encourage more active learning. Participation should not be required. 28. Promoting acceptance of diversity Children need to be exposed to the similarities and differences of people in positive ways through books, pictures, toys, materials, and interaction. This exposure encourages respect for others and lessens misunderstandings. Interactions29. Supervision of gross motor activities Caregivers should use gross motor activities as learning opportunities to promote positive social interactions and to encourage the development of skills and new experiences Diligent supervision of gross motor activities, whether indoors or outdoors, is critical to preventing accidents and insuring safe, active play. 30. General supervision of children (other than gross motor) During activities, caregivers must balance the level of supervision and control based upon the ages, abilities, and i ndividual needs of the children.Adequate supervision and awareness of the whole group is required for children's health and safety and in the recognition of accomplishments, which is necessary for children's emotional well-being. 31. Discipline The set-up of the environment, teacher expectations, available materials and opportunities, and daily schedule significantly impacts children's behavior in childcare. A classroom and curriculum geared toward developmentally appropriate practice will lead to generally good behavior that is the product of self-motivation rather than the result of punishment and control. 32. Staff-child interactionsCaregivers, who are nurturing and responsive, promote the development of mutual respect between children and adults. Children, who trust adults to provide for their physical, psychological, and emotional needs, develop their own sense of self-worth and self-esteem. 33. Interactions among children Because self-regulation, proper emotional expression, a nd positive social relationships are such essential skills for later schooling and life, teachers must encourage children to develop acceptable behaviors by providing a setting that encourages real opportunities for initiative taking and competence building.Providing opportunities for children to work and play together, to solve conflicts in productive ways, and to participate in group activities are ways teachers promote positive social relationships. Program Structure 34. Schedule Children thrive on having a consistent routine that provides a balance of activities designed to meet individual needs and foster physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth. Best practice promotes a daily schedule with large amounts of time for play, smooth transitions between activities, and a balance between child-initiated and teacher-directed activities. 35. Free PlayWhen children are permitted to select materials and companions, and, as far as possible, manage play independently, they practic e making decisions and having control of their world. Caregiver intervention should be in response to children's needs, an invitation, or an opportunity to expand play activities. 36. Group Time In group-care situations, the focus needs to be on meeting individual needs and guiding children as they interact in small groups. Whole group activities should be kept to a minimum and limited to gatherings that follow the interests and involvement of the children. 37. Provisions for children with disabilitiesMeeting the needs of children with disabilities requires knowledge of routine care needs, developmental levels, individual assessments, and the integration of the children in ongoing classroom activities. It also requires the involvement and establishment of a partnership between the parents and staff in setting attainable goals that will assist the child in reaching his/her full potential. Rutter, M. â€Å"Family and school influences on cognitive development,† Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 26, 683-704, 1985. Maybe little Janie can't read or count because her teacher can't teach.Or worse still, maybe the teacher doesn't know enough about English or math or history to teach the subject. Mischievous speculation? No. It happens, as a result of a historically flawed system in America of educating mostly average or below-average students to be public-school teachers. As evidence continues to pile up that American children are not learning the basics in school, critics are quick to blame the youngsters, their parents, the schools, television, or the curriculum. But increasingly, the focus has shifted to the teacher, the most vital link in the education process.Now, a four-month study at teachers colleges by The Washington Times indicates that the problem of unsatisfactory classroom learning is rooted in the early selection and education of students who say they want to be teachers. These students then are being taught by professors who differ wild ly on what teachers need to know. â€Å"Schools of education are cash cows to universities,† says Dean Edwin J. Delattre of the Boston University School of Education. â€Å"They admit and graduate students who have low levels of intellectual accomplishment, and these people are in turn visited on schoolchildren.They are well-intentioned, decent, nice people who by and large don't know what they're doing. † Mr. Delattre is one of the harshest critics of schools of education. â€Å"It would be possible in terms of the quality of their research, the significance of their research, and the quality of their instruction to give an intellectual justification for perhaps three dozen of them – certainly no more than 50,† he says. There are about 1,300 schools nationwide teaching students to be teachers. Roughly 2 1/2 million public-school teachers are responsible today for the education of 46 million children in kindergarten through high school.Although many teach ers perform well, a significant number are products of an entrenched training system that almost guarantees mediocrity in the classroom. New initiatives are under way in some of the preparatory schools and colleges, but, for the most part, the old ways and faddish new ways are still shaping the teachers of tomorrow. To become a public-school teacher, graduates have to be certified by the state. A college student must take required courses, do a stint at student teaching, and pass a series of general-knowledge examinations.The passing scores for these tests vary from state to state but tend to be fairly low. Curiously, many aspiring teachers never get in front of a classroom until their final days in college – an experience that sometimes persuades many to seek other careers. A major in education has long been considered an easy route to a college degree. Elementary education majors were especially easy to spot on any campus. They were the ones cutting out letters of the alpha bet to make posters while the English majors worried over a paper on Shakespeare's treatment of religious themes. Rigorous academic training was seldom demanded.â€Å"You just had to love kids to become a teacher,† says J. Michael Davis, dean of the School of Professional Studies at 105-year-old East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania. Thirteen years ago, it was possible to graduate from East Stroudsburg with a major in elementary education without ever taking a math class, Mr. Davis recalls. Twenty years ago, some University of Maryland campuses gave short shrift to reading instruction. Serious concerns about teacher training surfaced in 1983 with the publication of â€Å"A Nation at Risk,† a landmark national report on the state of America's educational system.It found that too many teachers had poor academic records and low scores on tests of cognitive ability. Students who went into teaching programs scored below nearly all other majors on college entrance exam s, then graduated not knowing enough about the subjects they were teaching. Not much has changed in 15 years. Anyone who believes that the problem of unqualified teachers is overblown or confined to a couple of subject areas such as math and science has only to look at the experience of a New York state school district last spring when it tried to fill 35 teaching vacancies.The Connetquot district on Long Island got 758 applications in response to an advertisement. District officials decided to narrow the pool by asking applicants to take a short version of a multiple-choice reading comprehension test taken from the state's old 11th-grade Regents English exams. Just 202 applicants correctly answered at least 40 of the 50 questions. Such incidents keep teacher education in the public consciousness and on the radar screens of elected officials at the state and federal levels. Initially, state legislators turned to higher salaries to try to attract higher-caliber students.From 1981 to 1997, average salaries for public-school teachers rose from $17,209 to $38,611. That's for what is essentially a 180-day school year plus in-service days spread over nine months. Then, lawmakers linked salary increases to policies aimed at raising standards such as requiring new teachers to have more education and raising the passing scores prospective teachers must attain on standardized tests such as the National Teacher Examinations and its successor, Praxis. The teachers colleges responded with talk of â€Å"restructuring† teacher education, and some institutions actually did move to raise admissions and curriculum standards.East Stroudsburg has raised entry standards and toughened course requirements. Students still need to take 60 hours in general education, but they no longer have a smorgasbord of courses to choose from. The college recently raised the grade point average needed to get into elementary education from 2. 5 to 2. 75. In 1996, Boston University began to ta rget only teacher applicants with high SAT scores, resulting in a 17 percent drop in the inquiry pool. As a result, prospective teachers in last fall's freshman class had average SAT scores of 1,276, compared with 964 for all 85,442 self-declared education majors who took the 1997 SAT.George Mason University decided in 1989 that teachers should get a bachelor's degree first and then train to teach in a fifth-year graduate-level program. The Fairfax County school says it annually rejects half the applicants for elementary education training because they don't meet admissions standards. It takes a 2. 7 GPA to get into the University of Maryland College of Education at College Park and a 3. 0 to prepare for special education, a five-year program. â€Å"We're not getting the best and the brightest kids,† says University of Maryland Dean Willis D. Hawley. â€Å"We're getting some of the best and brightest.Some kids are really smart. What there aren't anymore are kids who are real ly dumb. † But the perception lingers, even among insiders, that a lack of academic rigor continues to plague the nation's teacher training programs. â€Å"The truth is, students get into colleges of education – particularly early-childhood education majors – because it's the easiest thing they can get into,† says John E. Stone, professor of education at East Tennessee State University and founder of the Education Consumers Clearinghouse – an Internet source for parents, taxpayers and policy-makers.â€Å"Here at ETSU, the schools of education are kind of at the bottom of the pecking order,† he says. â€Å"Students flunk out of nursing or business and come to Ed to get some kind of college degree. † Since the concept of a formalized vocational training program for teachers was established nearly 160 years ago, that training has combined lessons in subject matter with courses in methodology, or â€Å"how to teach. † The training a lso has included theories of child development and practical field experience. From the start, teaching preparation emphasized methods of teaching at the expense of the content of courses.Often the subject matter would be watered down and presented in courses tailored especially for teachers, instead of requiring teachers to take the same math, for example, that liberal arts majors were required to take. â€Å"Their focus is process, and that hasn't changed,† says C. Emily Feistritzer, who as president of the private Washington-based National Center for Education Information has conducted a number of studies of teachers and teaching. â€Å"Resistance to change is extraordinarily high at the same time there is a high level of conversation about change.† Many critics of teacher training programs argue that a solid grounding in the liberal arts with a concentration in the subject to be taught is all that is needed to teach math, science, history or English. But Mr. Hawley at Maryland's College of Education disputes that. Chances are, he argues, that a rocket scientist would make a terrible science teacher. â€Å"You have to have the ability to transfer knowledge,† he says. That ability generally has to be learned, says Dean Gary R. Galluzzo of George Mason's Graduate School of Education.He believes that only 5 percent of the population might be â€Å"born† teachers, while 65 percent have knowledge but need to learn how to impart it. Boston University recently doubled the amount of time its prospective teachers are required to spend in math class. It also requires juniors and seniors in education to take an ethics course that exposes them to the icons of Western civilization. â€Å"We try to make the fact that teachers are deeply involved in character and values formation obvious to our students,† says professor Kevin Ryan, who teaches an introductory education course.† `What is the right thing to do? ‘ is a question teachers need to ask the young. And we want them to see that America has a moral heritage. † Adds Charles L. Glenn, chairman of BU's Department of Administration, Training and Policy Studies, who teaches a course on the social and civic contexts of education: â€Å"Teachers have to be moral exemplars to students. We raise questions that are usually raised in a religious context. On what basis can you say certain behaviors are right or wrong? I don't know how you can send someone who hasn't grappled with those questions out to teach a 7-year-old.†Schools of education, reacting to social and political pressures, are perceived to be more interested in promoting equity, diversity and social justice than in transmitting knowledge. And many of the educational practices they encourage are often criticized as fads. East Stroudsburg's administrators, for example, proudly describe their teacher training program as focused on the learner and on â€Å"outcomes,† committed to â€Å"developmentally appropriate practice,† â€Å"modeling,† inclusion, and â€Å"hands-on† and cooperative learning.These are the buzzwords and the practices that permeate nearly all of the nation's teacher training institutions. â€Å"Schools of education are currently the origins of our problems, not their solution,† says E. D. Hirsch Jr. , professor of English and university professor of education and humanities at the University of Virginia. Testifying before Congress, Mr. Hirsch sharply criticized what's known as â€Å"developmentally appropriate practice† – the philosophy that a child should not be pressured to learn anything until he signals that he is ready and receptive.â€Å"The doctrine,† he said, â€Å"is drummed into almost all teachers who take early-education courses. The intention is to ensure caring treatment for young children, yet the ultimate effect of the doctrine is to cause social harm. To withhold demanding content from young children between preschool and third grade has an effect which is quite different from the one intended. It leaves advantaged children [who get knowledge at home] with boring pablum, and it condemns disadvantaged children to a permanent educational handicap that grows worse over time. â€Å"The schools that hire new teachers appreciate the increased attention college and university training programs are giving to practical experience. â€Å"Teaching colleges are getting a lot better,† says James Dallas, a Fairfax County support coach for new teachers. â€Å"They have begun to structure their programs to the needs of the school systems. † Where practical experience used to come in the senior year, it now begins at many places in the freshman year, where it can serve to weed out those who discover that life in an elementary classroom is not what they thought it would be.While there is general agreement among the deans about the value of practical exp erience, they part company on the ideal program to train elementary teachers. Mr. Galluzzo of George Mason would opt for a solid general education foundation in an undergraduate or graduate program. â€Å"You should be required to take a liberal arts major of about 80 [semester hours] or two-thirds of the college experience for general education plus major combined.Then you should study the four core disciplines – math, science, history and English – roughly 15 credits each. Spend the other 20 hours getting smart in one of these areas. And in the undergraduate program, the other 40 credits are in learning to teach those things, because now you have something to say. † In many programs, a lot of the basic discipline has to be taught in the methodology classes because the prospective teachers don't know enough math or science to stand up in front of a class and teach, he says.One of his concerns is that too many future teachers take a concentration in psychology i nstead of English, math, science or history, thinking it will help them understand children. In fact, psychology is a subject they will never teach in elementary school. â€Å"What does it mean to know your subject? † asks Maryland's Mr. Hawley, whose background is in the liberal arts and political science. â€Å"You probably don't need to understand quadratic equations to teach fourth-grade math, but you ought to understand algebra and calculus. â€Å"

Chemistry Questionnaire Essay

What is meant by the term cis-trans isomerism? How many cis-trans isomers are present in Structure I? Draw any 2 possible cis-trans isomers. (iii) State the physical state of this lipid at room temperature. Explain your answer. [9] (b) Suggest a possible identity for each of the organic compounds A-E below. Explain your reasoning and write balanced equations for the reactions involved where possible. i) A, C11H14O2 is a neutral compound. Hydrolysis of A gives B, C7H6O2 which is a white precipitate and C, C4H10O which does not decolourise acidified potassium manganate(VII) on heating. (ii) D, C4H10O2 reacts with 2 moles of sodium metal, but not with solid sodium carbonate. On boiling under reflux with aqueous potassium manganate(VII), D gives a compound, E, C4H6O3. E reacts with alkaline aqueous iodine to give a yellow precipitate and evolves carbon dioxide when solid sodium carbonate is added. Draw structural formulae of the products of the reactions between glutamic acid and I aqueous NaOH II aqueous HCl (ii) Draw the structural formula of a dipeptide formed between glutamic acid and phenylalanine, showing the ionic form in which it would exist at pH 10. [4] [Total: 20] 5 3 (a) Iron(III) chloride is a dark brown solid which dissolves in water to give an acidic solution. This solution is used to etch, i. e. dissolve, unwanted copper from printed circuit boards. When a copper-coated printed circuit board is immersed in aqueous iron(III) chloride, the solution turns greenish blue. i) Explain, with the aid of an equation, why aqueous iron(III) chloride is acidic. (ii) Use the Data Booklet to explain why iron(III) chloride etches copper. Give a relevant equation to explain the greenish blue solution observed. (iii) Suggest what happens to the overall E0 value if the thickness of the copper coating is increased. Anhydrous aluminium chloride behaves similarly as anhydrous iron(III) chloride in that they sublime readily when heated. When 1. 56 g of aluminium chloride was placed in an evacuated vessel of volume 1. 00 dm3 at 1800C, the pressure produced was 32. kPa. (i) Calculate the apparent relative molecular mass of the aluminium chloride under the stated conditions. (ii) In the vapour phase, aluminium chloride partially exists as a dimer. Using your answer obtained for b(i), calculate the percentage of the dimer under the stated conditions. (iii) Suggest a reason why the dimerisation process of aluminium chloride is exothermic. 6 (iv) Predict, giving a reason in each case, the effect on the proportion of dimer in the equilibrium mixture if I the pressure is lowered, II the temperature is lowered. MgO(s) + CO2(g) ?H? = +117 kJ mol-1; ?S? = +175 J mol-1 K-1 8 (i) Why does the entropy increase when magnesium carbonate decomposes? (ii) Calculate the standard Gibbs free energy change, ? G? , for the decomposition of magnesium carbonate. Comment on the spontaneity of the decomposition of magnesium carbonate at room temperature. (iii) Assuming that ? H? and ? S? for the reaction are independent of temperature, calculate the temperature at which the decomposition reaction becomes feasible. (iv) Compare the ease of thermal decomposition of magnesium carbonate with barium carbonate. [8] Turn over 4 (d) Suggest a simple chemical test to distinguish between each pair of compounds. For each test, give reagents and conditions, and state what would be seen with each compound. The dissociation reactions and Ka values of carbonic acid are given below. H2CO3 HCO3- + H+ Ka1 = 4. 2 x 10-7 mol dm-3 HCO3- CO32 – + H+ Ka2 = 4. 8 x 10-11 mol dm-3 0. 10 mol dm-3 aqueous NaOH is added slowly to 20. 0 cm3 of carbonic acid and the change in pH is followed and shown below. pH x x B x A x x 10 20 30 40 10 Vol of aqueous NaOH added / cm3 (i) Calculate the initial pH of the carbonic acid, stating any assumptions you make. (ii) Calculate the pH at the first equivalence point, A. (iii) What is the pH at point B? Give a reason for your answer. [6] [Turn over 5 (b) Maintenance of pH is vital to the cells of all living organisms because enzyme activity is influenced by pH. For instance, protection from harmful pH change in the blood plasma is provided by the hydrogencarbonate/carbonic acid system (HCO3-/H2CO3). At 370C, the temperature of the human body, pH of blood plasma is 7. 4. i) Explain, with relevant equations, how the hydrogencarbonate/carbonic acid system regul ates the pH of blood plasma. (ii) Calculate the ratio of [HCO3-]/[H2CO3] for maintaining the optimum pH of blood plasma. [4] (c) Describe two differences in physical properties between transition metals and a s-block metal such as magnesium, suggesting reasons for these differences based on their atomic structures. [3] 11 (d) The oxidation of manganese(IV) oxide in alkaline solution in air produces green manganate(VI) ion, MnO42-. When manganate(VI) is added to a dilute acid, a purple solution and dark brown solid manganese(IV) oxide reforms.